Suraj Prasad
Independent Researcher
Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
The Zamindari and Ryotwari systems, instituted under British colonial rule in India, represent two fundamentally distinct approaches to land revenue administration, each with profound and long-lasting socioeconomic consequences. The Zamindari model, crystallized by the Permanent Settlement of 1793, conferred hereditary revenue-collection rights to landlords (zamindars) in exchange for fixed payments to the Crown, ostensibly incentivizing land improvement yet in practice fostering absentee landlordism, rent-seeking behaviors, and widespread tenant exploitation. Conversely, the Ryotwari system—introduced in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies from the early nineteenth century—sought to engage cultivators (ryots) directly with the colonial administration, with land taxes assessed on individual plots and subject to periodic revision. Proponents argued this approach would eliminate intermediaries, empower peasants, and promote agricultural productivity. However, the reality was a heavy fiscal burden that drove many ryots into cycles of indebtedness and land alienation. This study undertakes a comparative analysis of these two revenue regimes, exploring their impacts on agricultural output, rural livelihoods, social equity, and patterns of land tenure. Drawing on archival records, district gazetteers, and recent historiographical debates, as well as a structured survey of 200 stakeholders—including historians, development economists, and descendants of zamindar and ryotwari regions—this research triangulates quantitative and qualitative evidence. Findings indicate that while the Ryotwari system yielded marginally better perceptions of fairness and tenancy security, both regimes entrenched economic disparities, undermined sustainable development, and left legacies of fragmented landholding and social stratification. The paper concludes by discussing policy lessons for contemporary land-reform efforts—advocating hybrid frameworks that combine revenue stability with robust peasant protections, community governance, and mechanisms for credit access in order to redress historical injustices and foster long-term rural resilience.
Keywords
Zamindari, Ryotwari, Land Revenue, Socioeconomic Impact, Colonial India
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